Greed in Victorian Literature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Eagerness in Victorian Literature - Essay Example In any case, Allan Quatrain cunningly recognizes that he kept this as an intention in his psyche and the man uncovers his reasonable sense. Something else is that Gagool, the old witch makes reference to about the white man’s desire for white stones ordinarily in the story. In view of their covetousness, Allan Quatrain and his kindred men subject to serious passing involvement with the Gagool cavern. Every one of these hardships constrained them to feel relapse to their desire for unbounded riches. The idea of edified colonization is first rate in this novel. White individuals attempt to cultivate Kaukauna clan. Quatrain and his allies guarantee military trades to Umbopa for toppling the detestable ruler. Yet, the issue is that the Victorian disparaging soul of the white individuals is uncovered through their cognizant exertion to control the African clans through weapons. White individuals make connections just for their material advantages and they can't escape from avarice. White abuse against the African clans is obvious in the novel through the character of Good and his endeavors to build up a connection with wonderful Kukuana girl.White endeavors to acculturating Africans consistently came to in concealment and misuse. Despite the fact that Allan Quatrain and his sidekicks go about as the defenders of human advancement, they can't shroud their genuine expectation and eagerness. Allan Quatrain uncovers this when he says in this way; â€Å"Then we as a whole snickered and accepting it as a hint of something to look forward to. He was a happy savage was Umbopa, in a noble kind of a way, when he had not got one of his attacks of agonizing and had a superb talent of keeping one’s spirits up. We as a whole got attached to him†.... In light of their insatiability, Allan Quatrain and his kindred men subject to extreme passing involvement with the Gagool cavern. Every one of these hardships constrained them to feel relapse to their desire for unbounded riches. Idea of enlightened colonization is top notch in this novel. White individuals attempt to edify Kaukauna clan. Quatrain and his buddies guarantee military trades to Umbopa for toppling the malicious lord. In any case, the issue is that the Victorian disparaging soul of the white individuals is uncovered through their cognizant exertion to control the African clans through weapons. White individuals make connections just for their material advantages and they can't escape from insatiability. White misuse against the African clans is noticeable in the novel through the character of Good and his endeavors to create connection with excellent Kukuana girl.White endeavors to cultivating Africans consistently came to in concealment and abuse. Despite the fact that Allan Quatrain and his allies go about as the defenders of human progress, they can't shroud their genuine goal and ravenousness. Allan Quatrain uncovers this when he says consequently; â€Å"Then we as a whole chuckled and took it for a hint of something better over the horizon. He was a happy savage was Umbopa, in a noble kind of a way, when he had not got one of his attacks of agonizing, and had a brilliant talent of keeping one’s spirits up. We as a whole got partial to him† (Haggard 29). Heroes like Allan Quatrain, Henry, his lost sibling and Good of Haggard’s epic speak to common Victorian who searches influence and riches. They start their excursion with an honorable reason then it changed in to different measurements. Man looking changes to cash looking toward the end. Dickens’s saint Pip is additionally depicted as a survivor of post-

Football referees Literature review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Football officials - Literature audit Example In the event that great control needs and unadulterated insubordination rules, at that point no regard for the authorities can be ensured and arbitrators misuse can be normal absent a lot of thought. The conversation introduced underneath is fundamentally a push to feature the presence of disciplinary issues in the UK football while laying weight on the officials maltreatment by players and to what degree this maltreatment is influencing the refs and their inclinations. The paper additionally features the means taken by the football refs to conquer the absence of order and coming about maltreatment from the football players in UK. Contradiction from the referees’ choices because of absence of control: According to a games report by Taylor and Hytner (2008), the merciless and rebellious conduct appeared by Ashley Cole and his partners towards the match ref Sir Alex Ferguson (Scottish football chief) was too huge to ever be neglected and has been the subject of much analysis amo ng the UK open and whole world also. This situation presents a significant model when absence of control and regard in the UK football players is discussed. ... The report further lays weight on the effect of absence of control among the UK football players by referencing that another player named Grant likewise energetically couldn't help contradicting the choice of the match official Dean, who sent a midfielder player out of the field by excusing him in the principal coordinate that was regulated by him. This activity of the match arbitrator was colossally hated by the cooperative people who as opposed to concurring with the referee’s choice as per the guidelines of the game, began mishandling the ref coarsely. It is a decent measure taken by Chelsea that Cole was thusly rebuffed inferable from the way that he bothered the match official while taking steps to grab the red card from his hand. Pearce (refered to in Herbert, 2008) underscores that arbitrators can commit errors too some of the time and they ought to be endured by the players. Absence of union and concordance prompts difference among players and refs: Wenger, originating from the football club Arsenal has been cited as saying after a match that â€Å"Our game needed union. I generally felt we could be punished.† (refered to in Press Association, 2010). This additionally bolsters the truth that control is inadequate in the UK football match-up and all the more significantly, among the football players. The UK football players have mysteriously built up an obstinate feeling of challenging a large portion of the choices taken by the match refs and a very advertised dramatization is made when a specific match arbitrator arranges any player to leave the field. In light of yellow or red card appeared by the official, all the colleagues normally encompass the arbitrator and begin pressurizing him for reclaiming his choice. Some even venture to put

The constitution 1850-1861

There were numerous reasons for the detachment of the association. Numerous individuals contend that the Constitution, which was an image of the national solidarity, added to its division. This is valid here and there, however it didn't occur right away. Numerous occasions, for example, the death of the Fugitive Slave and Kentucky-Nebraska Acts, slowly developed the pressure among North and South, until the association crumbled. Despite the fact that the Compromise of 1850 was intended to tackle the emergency, it just made increasingly pressure between the north and south.The principle reasons for the trade off were to concede California into the association as a free state, and partition the Mexican Cession into two regions †Utah and New Mexico. The bondage issue in these states was do be chosen by mainstream sway. The trade off likewise demonstrated for a Fugitive Slave Law, and restricted the slave exchange the District of Columbia. The Fugitive Slave Law, which was a piece o f the trade off, additionally caused a ton of contention. The primary reason for the law was to permit the catch and return of slaves that got away into the northern states back to their unique owners.Special chiefs were approved to capture the escapees. Regardless of whether the caught individual was a free dark, they were still precluded the privilege from securing a reasonable preliminary. Any individual who contradicted the capture of a slave was to be rebuffed. The Southerners were not so much positive for the law, since they had to free California. The North additionally responded contrarily to the implementation of the new law. Numerous individuals like Ralph Waldo Emerson said that the Fugitive Slave Law was in a manner opposing to the Constitution itself. He said that it is viewed as a wrongdoing to subjugate a man in Africa, while it is additionally â€Å"high wrongdoing and crime, culpable with fine and detainment, to oppose the reenslaving a man on the shore of Americaà ¢â‚¬  (Emerson).Another case of this would be the President James Buchanan's fourth yearly message to congress. Buchanan didn't need the southern states to withdraw. Anyway he would not like to utilize military to stop them either. Buchanan contended that the Congress had no capacity to prevent a state from pulling back from the association. He said â€Å"that no such force has been designated to congress† (Buchanan). The Kansas-Nebraska bill was another genuine model. The bill suggested that the Nebraska domain was to be separated into Kansas and Nebraska regions. The pioneers would then choose whether subjection ought to be permitted. Southern slave proprietors supported this bill since it expelled the limits set by the Missouri Compromise.The southerners wereâ in a way â€Å"forcing subjection down the throat of the freesoliers† in Kansas. The law insulted northern Democrats, and this made considerably progressively pressure. Despite the fact that by all account n ot the only explanation, disagreements regarding the significance of the Constitution assumed a major job paving the way to the Civil War. What was once settled to join the country currently lead to its division.

Analysis summary based on common ground paper Essay

Investigation synopsis dependent on shared belief paper - Essay Example Today, individuals might want to know the variables why Saginaw was completely abandoned, ignored as far as financial political development as contrasted and its other neighboring urban communities. This paper endeavors to introduce some important bits of knowledge that may contribute later to a more profound situational examination of Saginaw just as refer to and underscore the missing components that must be given full help and consideration. Saginaw should take the street towards change for a Better Saginaw. This implies every current asset, qualities, open doors just as its critical issues must be contained in a comprehensive arrangement that will address the requirements of the city and its kin and realize changes that will graph its turn of events. Moving towards this course, Paoli and Sarah Pedini have just brought up that Saginaw has the most significant asset of every one of, its People, who they guarantee are characteristically aesthetic and inventive. Should these attributes be appropriately saddled, used, upheld and connected with neighborhood and worldwide based business organizations, these can carry critical incomes to Saginaw. They likewise referenced that Saginaw invests heavily in advancing its current old hereditary structures like galleries, normal untamed life living spaces, spaces for beneficial social exercises, parks, and so forth that could be created to draw in and build up its travel industry. Mor eover, Dr. Chris Schilling, an examination Engineer (SVSU) and furthermore an asset individual, clarified the distinctive potential assets of Saginaw which can be tapped and created as new Saginaw feature enterprises (for example consolidated breeze sun powered industry, vitality cultivating and reusing industry) that will draw in outer financial specialists who will carry more employments and pay to the city of Saginaw. Like some other city, Saginaw faces obstruction components to its improvement just as new difficulties. Greg

See You Later

See You Later This Friday, August 10th, will mark three years to the day since I began working in MIT Admissions. It will also mark my last. At least, for a little while. Next week I will begin a leave of absence from MIT. I will not, however, be leaving MIT. I will instead be moving a few buildings east to the Media Lab, where I will spend a year as a graduate student and researcher. As some of you may remember, before MIT I was a researcher at the Berkman Center for Internet and Society, and before that at the University of Massachusetts, where I wrote my senior thesis about privacy on networked social intermediaries. When I came to MIT Admissions, I frankly thought it would be a short stopover on my way to law school. I was wrong (thank goodness). Ive loved it here. And Ive never wanted to leave. I have, however, wanted to keep learning. So I started taking grad classes in the Comparative Media Studies program. They were really hard. I was put in a room with a small number of very smart grad students and a brilliant professor and forced to think in new, uncomfortable ways. If youve ever been to a physical therapist, you know the kind of discomfort I mean: the breaking apart of old adhesions that hurts even as it gives you the freedom to move in new and better ways. I got hooked. I knew the program wasnt what I thought I had wanted, but I knew it would push me out of my comfort zone and expose me to new ideas that I could use or discard as I saw fit. So I applied to CMS grad admissions at MIT are handled entirely by each department and was admitted a week or two before CPW. Originally I had planned to just take one class a semester for a really long time while continuing to work in the office. But for a variety of reasons some academic, some administrative that wasnt going to work for me, for the office, or for CMS. So we did what MIT people always do when faced with this kind of problem: we improvised. My program is usually two years long, but, because Id already taken a few classes and started on my thesis, CMS agreed to let me overload and aim to finish in one. The office, meanwhile, agreed to give me a years leave of absence sort of like a sabbatical to allow me to go and pursue this opportunity. One of the best parts about grad school here is that most (non-Sloan) students are fully-funded, meaning their tuition, stipend, and health insurance are all covered by MIT in exchange for some research or teaching activities. Last week, I found out that Ill be spending the next year as a research assistant at the Center for Civic Media, which is hands down my favorite lab at MIT. Civic works with communities to collaboratively create, design, deploy, and assess civic media tools and practices. I am incredibly fortunate.  Ive got the opportunity to get an MIT grad degree in a really mind-expanding program with a cool thesis topic. Ill be  fully supported by my favorite research lab on the planet. And I can return, at the end, to the job which I love. That is why this decision was easy to make. But its consequences will still be difficult to live with. This is not an easy job to leave, even if only for a year. In the three years I have worked in this office I have never been bored. I have always found it fascinating, stimulating, and profoundly meaningful. The opportunities I have had to meet MIT applicants, to read their applications, to see the admits at CPW, to advise them academically once they are here, to see them struggle and succeed and mature and grow and then go off and just blow the lid off the world has been incredible. But I know this is the right opportunity at the right time. Like Yogi Berra said: when you get to a fork in the road, sometimes you just have to take it. But what, you ask, of the website, and all of the digital things that I do? Do not be afraid. We have hired on a regent to serve in my stead for the next year. Hes even named Chris to help minimize the confusion! He was selected (from many great applicants) primarily because he can a) speak authentically and honestly to our prospective student audiences, and b) because hes going to be a great admissions reader. Ill let the new Chris introduce himself tomorrow. Hell be keeping the trains running, bossing around our (new) bloggers, and supervising a few new website tricks we have up our sleeves for rollout later this fall (thats all Ill say for now). With that, Ill take your leave in order to begin mine. I may nor may not blog over the coming months, but even while my head is in the Lab, my heart will be in Admissions. If you need me, my email is the same, so just drop me a line. Be well. Ill see you later.

The Impact of slavery and Christianity in American History - 550 Words

The Impact of slavery and Christianity in American History (Essay Sample) Content: Students NameProfessor/Instructors NameCourse TitleDate of submissionThe impact of slavery and Christianity in American history. Uncle Toms cabin, a symbol in itself served as an eye-opener during the civil wars of U.S.A. The characters in the novel depict the real situation experienced by African American people before slavery as an institution was abolished. Stowe, the author of this book uses her characters to enhance her view on the subject and brings to light how the situation appeared from both sides, as a slave and as a slave-owner. Firstly, Stowe weaves in symbolism in her novel. She uses geography to depict the north to represent freedom and the south as related to slavery and suffering. One of the characters, George Harris and his wife Eliza escape to the north, earn their freedom by escaping to Canada and miraculously meet Elizas mother with whom she had long been separated. By chance, they come across Georges sister who was lucky enough to be granted her f reedom and inherited her late husbands wealth. She shares her fortune with George and Eliza and they supposedly live happily ever after in Liberia, a West-African state for freed slaves (Stowe 376). On the other hand, the main protagonist in this novel, Uncle Tom refuses to run away from his master. He stays in the south and for a while is lucky enough to have kind masters. However, his luck finally runs out when he is bought by a mean man called Legree. Legree tortures him and in the end kills him. The fate of both slaves is seen to be different because of their geographical position (SparkNotes Editors). Secondly, Uncle Toms cabin, a major symbol in this book is also used to emphasize the theme of the evil nature of slavery. In the cabin, George Shelby, Toms initial owners son, saw the evil of slavery and the power of Christianity to overcome it. The cabin is used to symbolize Toms sacrifice for his friends and values. He died as a result of a beating from Legree after he refused to disclose information that would have helped in the capture of some runaway slaves, Cassy and Emmeline. Owing to Legrees behavior, capture would mean torture for the slaves as such, Tom does not help Legree. Legree then tortures Tom by beating him till near death. He dies when George, his former master and friend arrives to set him free, dying a peaceful death. He dies loving his oppressor, stating that he would give blood from his heart to save him and thus defeats Legree even in his death (Stowe 365). Furthermore, Eliza, George Harris wife jumps across the Ohio River to escape the person pursuing her, Haley. Haley had bought Harry, Elizas son from Mr. Shelby. Unable to bear the thought of being separated from her son, Eliza decides to run away to Canada with her son to free him from slavery. Haley gets close to capturing Eliza but she dangerously jumps across the icy river, disregarding her pain in order to save her son. She is able to escape to the other side, though far from h er freedom, this deed is skillfully used to sy... The Impact of slavery and Christianity in American History - 550 Words The Impact of slavery and Christianity in American History (Essay Sample) Content: Students NameProfessor/Instructors NameCourse TitleDate of submissionThe impact of slavery and Christianity in American history. Uncle Toms cabin, a symbol in itself served as an eye-opener during the civil wars of U.S.A. The characters in the novel depict the real situation experienced by African American people before slavery as an institution was abolished. Stowe, the author of this book uses her characters to enhance her view on the subject and brings to light how the situation appeared from both sides, as a slave and as a slave-owner. Firstly, Stowe weaves in symbolism in her novel. She uses geography to depict the north to represent freedom and the south as related to slavery and suffering. One of the characters, George Harris and his wife Eliza escape to the north, earn their freedom by escaping to Canada and miraculously meet Elizas mother with whom she had long been separated. By chance, they come across Georges sister who was lucky enough to be granted her f reedom and inherited her late husbands wealth. She shares her fortune with George and Eliza and they supposedly live happily ever after in Liberia, a West-African state for freed slaves (Stowe 376). On the other hand, the main protagonist in this novel, Uncle Tom refuses to run away from his master. He stays in the south and for a while is lucky enough to have kind masters. However, his luck finally runs out when he is bought by a mean man called Legree. Legree tortures him and in the end kills him. The fate of both slaves is seen to be different because of their geographical position (SparkNotes Editors). Secondly, Uncle Toms cabin, a major symbol in this book is also used to emphasize the theme of the evil nature of slavery. In the cabin, George Shelby, Toms initial owners son, saw the evil of slavery and the power of Christianity to overcome it. The cabin is used to symbolize Toms sacrifice for his friends and values. He died as a result of a beating from Legree after he refused to disclose information that would have helped in the capture of some runaway slaves, Cassy and Emmeline. Owing to Legrees behavior, capture would mean torture for the slaves as such, Tom does not help Legree. Legree then tortures Tom by beating him till near death. He dies when George, his former master and friend arrives to set him free, dying a peaceful death. He dies loving his oppressor, stating that he would give blood from his heart to save him and thus defeats Legree even in his death (Stowe 365). Furthermore, Eliza, George Harris wife jumps across the Ohio River to escape the person pursuing her, Haley. Haley had bought Harry, Elizas son from Mr. Shelby. Unable to bear the thought of being separated from her son, Eliza decides to run away to Canada with her son to free him from slavery. Haley gets close to capturing Eliza but she dangerously jumps across the icy river, disregarding her pain in order to save her son. She is able to escape to the other side, though far from h er freedom, this deed is skillfully used to sy...

The Problem Of Drug Addiction - 1233 Words

This report will outline the problems of drug addiction that have arisen in the young teens and as well give possible solutions on how to overcome it. Drug addiction, increasing immensely in our society, is currently the biggest problem in young teens these days. Looking at the future of our country drowning in drugs is a big disappointment. To prevent drug addiction parents should guide their children into the right path, schools should promote healthy living, and the government should step forward to set up campaigns to educate parents about this topic. The riddance of drugs is a leading factor to abolish crimes in the community. After reading this report, you will have an understanding of how to reduce drugs from the city and the possible solutions to help over come this issue. ISSUE: Drug addiction has been increasing immensely among our society today and is spreading rapidly among young teens which is not only harming their health but is also ruining precious time of their life. ANALYSIS WITH POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS †¢ Parents should guide their children into the right path: A child is greatly impacted by it’s parents during their childhood. Children are like clay and parents can mould them in their initial stage of the life cycle how ever they want. Parents should have enough knowledge about ways children get attracted toward drugs, so that they can prevent addiction for the future. Often children with problematic backgrounds start consuming drugs because of theShow MoreRelatedDrug Addiction Problem1399 Words   |  6 PagesSolving the Problem of Drug Addiction 1.Drug abuse and addiction continues to be a global issue. According to the â€Å"United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime† (UNODC), about 5% of the global population used an illicit drug in 2010 alone, and about 27 million or 0.6 percent of the adult population of the world can be categorized as drug abusers. A7 2.This paper explores some of the measures that can be taken to resolve the drug addiction problem in the world. 3.Addressing various risk and protectiveRead MoreThe Problem Of Drug Addiction974 Words   |  4 Pagesan addiction, whether a person is addicted to alcohol, methamphetamines, marijuana or over the counter drugs, people often have different sides to this. Some may say that an addiction is a disease; others say that an addiction is just a poor choice of a person’s life. The National Institute on Drug Abuse states that â€Å"†¦drug addiction is a complex disease, and quitting takes more than good intentions or a strong will. In fact, because drugs change the brain in ways that foster compulsive drug abuseRead MoreThe Problem Of Drug Addiction952 Words   |  4 Pagesperson initially taking drugs can vary and while the action itself is voluntary: the eventual drug addiction is essentially involuntary. Drug addiction is a complex and chronic disease, a brain disease, which changes the way the brain functions. Drug addiction, much like chronic illnesses such as heart disea se and diabetes, disrupts healthy, normal functioning organs. This has harmful consequences that are both preventable and treatable (Branch, 2011, pp.263-265). Drug addiction is considered a brainRead MoreThe Problem Of Drug Addiction930 Words   |  4 Pagesconsumed alcohol, 15% have smoked cigarettes, and 16.5% have used marijuana. † A drug can be defined as a something which â€Å"alters your mind or body that is not food † which is something all of these substances have in common. There has been a massive increase in underage consumption of illegal substances in the last several decades. These substances which young people are using are known for being very addictive. Addiction is much more likely to occur when started at a young age and having more severeRead MoreThe Problems of Drug Addiction954 Words   |  4 PagesDrug addiction A reasonable number of people do not understand why other people get addicted to drugs. Some even associate drug abuse and addiction with lack of moral principles or willpower. People subscribing to this school of thought believe that drug addicts can stop using drugs by simply changing their behavior. They fail to realize that drug addiction is a complex disease whose eradication calls for many things other than changing habits. Drugs basically change the way a human brain worksRead MoreThe Problem Of Drug Addiction1796 Words   |  8 Pages Drug addiction has long been and still is a typical issue around the world. Jesmyn Ward writes about the effect of drug addiction in her community in DeLisle and the toll it took in her life and Rog’s life. There are different reason why people get addicted and various levels to which people become dependent on drugs, but the main thing I am going to be addressing is the multiple perspective on the causes for addiction. The ones I am going to explore are Low Income neighborhoods, social, financialRead MoreThe Problem Of Drug Addiction967 Words   |  4 PagesDrug addiction is an ever-growing problem faced in society and, although the government tries to take action to keep drugs off the streets, people of all social classes and backgrounds still fall victim to drug abuse. However, environmental situations can make an individual more susceptible: age, gender, location, genetics, family situations and the like can all be factors into an individuals’ drug habit. There are complications with picking the correct plan suited to a person. Each client is theirRead MoreThe Problem Of Drug Addiction1042 Words   |  5 PagesOPENING/ATTENTION: In reality, drug addiction is an unpredictable ailment, and stopping takes more than great goals or an in number will. Truth be told, because drugs change the mind in ways that cultivate compulsive drug misuse, stopping is troublesome, notwithstanding for the individuals why should prepared do as such The dependence on medications is a troublesome thing for any person to bargain with. Often, habit prompts the decay of a man s prosperity, budgetary security, and health. Drug addicts experienceRead MoreThe Problem Of Drug Addiction2110 Words   |  9 PagesMODEL(S) OF ADDICTION In going through the counseling process with Marge she was explained that there is the possibility that it could be a factor of genetics. When considering her background one has realized that she not only has an alcohol addiction, but it was the same for her father and her uncle, both of whom had lost their lives to the disease. In talking about the disease model with Marge she seemed to be more at ease with the situation and more willing to accept the fact that she does haveRead MoreThe Problem Of Drug Addiction Essay2435 Words   |  10 Pagesgoing to solve your problems? According to NIH, the death rate caused by usage of heroin has been increased by triple of its number in the past 10 years. The purpose is to treat people; especially teenagers understanding its negative consequences it has on them before they get addicted to it. When the addiction starts addicts have no idea that they would be so in to it that there is no possible way to stop. Addiction is a chronic, weakened disease characterized by compulsive drug-seeking and use despite

Monetary policy conduct under inflation targeting framework - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 25 Words: 7432 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? CHARPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION The world is turning into a demon to its own people as many are living in deplorable situations that are hardly bearable. The price level have risen sharply in the recent past coupled with dwindling wage levels and declining growth rate, especially, in majority of African countries where poverty has embedded itself to an extent that people in these countries live below one dollar per day. However, majority of governments have embarked on instituting major reforms through introduction of avant-garde monetary policy schemes, which forge the way forward through which the monetary authority re-design its policy by focusing primarily on price stability as the primary objective. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Monetary policy conduct under inflation targeting framework" essay for you Create order In the last twenty years, majority of both developed and emerging economies respectively have embarked on IT framework as their best choice in conducting monetary policy, with none of inflation countries targeters abandoning the framework, save for Finland and Spain, that have already joined the European Monetary System (EMS) in late 90s. IT-framework; an approach to management of monetary policy was pioneered by the New Zealand Government in 1990 after it abandoned its pegged exchange rate five years later. By the year 2009, over twenty-five countries comprised of developed, emerging, and developing countries around the world had so far espoused the IT-Framework and have reported greater achievement of low inflation rate. Majority of these countries mainly from Latin America, East Asia and United Kingdom had experienced high bout of inflation and financial crises exacerbated by their former monetary policy regimes. These not only resulted to sacrificing output and employment but als o resulted to severe increase in international capital flow leading to a switch to floating exchange rate. 1.1 Historical Background In relation to many other African countries, the monetary policy and financial institutions of Kenya has developed rapidly within the last two decades and probably more advanced than other countries at a similar stage of underdevelopment. Kenya opened its own Central Bank in September 1966 with the hope that, it would at least generate secondary expansion by facilitating the creation of bank credit and accelerate the process of monetization of the economys subsistence sector, in spite, of its openness and sensitivity to fluctuations of primary commodities. The next decade following the establishment of her Central Bank witnessed interesting changes in Kenyas monetary and banking policies as the oil shock of 1973 created inflexibility in the foreign exchange reserves as they declined considerably. Hence, the magnitude and speed of reduction in credit expansion were not adequate to show the decline in foreign exchange reserves. In fact, the fear that tight monetary policy induced from outside could hamper the rate of development at home led to feeble corrective measures such as restraining inflation impact due to price boom of exports, which coincided with expansionary monetary policy under a low profile of interest rates. In the early 1980s and 1990s Kenya experienced high inflation resulting from a prolonged spell of drought and political instability that resulted from introduction of a multiparty system in the Kenyan political history in late 1980 and also general elections followed later in 1992. Besides, in 2002, the growth per capita was negative due to high corruption of the highly ranked government official and political interferences of major decision-making organs of government including the Central Bank of Kenya, as it could not carry out its mandate freely. In the year 2008, Kenya faced another dark moment in terms of its political stability as the whole country went into turmoil due to the highly disputed general elections of 2007. The once giant of East African countries went down into ashes and major sectors of the economy especially the financial sector got hurt the most. Since then, it has been very difficult for the resurgence of economic stability, political stability and financial i nstitution even after the power brokering that gave birth to a coalition government in that same year. However, in late 2010, the coalition government of Kenya gave hopes to recovery of major sectors of the economy when the New Constitution unanimously voted into existence in a referendum. This Constitution has brought about major reforms in the financial and political arenas more specifically in the Central Bank of Kenya as per se; hence, major changes are expected to be instituted by CBK for an effective and independent monetary policy conduct. 1.1.2 Road map of Kenya towards adoption of ITF 1.1.2a) Central Bank of Kenya main policy objective The amended Central Bank of Kenya Act of 1996, CAP 491(4) permitted the Banks operational autonomy in the conduct of monetary policy and mandated price stability as one of its primary objectives through formulation and implementation of such principal object of the bank, thus, promoting the long-term goal of economic growth. In fact, the Central Bank of Kenya does not announce an inflation target; instead, it uses money growth reserve as her main nominal anchor of which the repo rate forms its main operational target. It is in this perspective that the CBK monitor and control inflation rate through interest rate transmission channel as a way of conducting monetary policy. Apart from the main objective that is price stability, the Bank has a mandate to balance its inflation goals against other goals such as exchange rate stability and promotion of liquidity, solvency and steady-market back up while ensuring equilibrium in domestic and external payments. 1.1.2b) Central Bank of Kenya attributes that favor ITF adoption The Bank like any other bank of its caliber is mandated by the legislation to carry out its objectives in a more coherent and consistent manner without any external interference, thereby commanding greater central bank independence. The Old Constitution of the Republic Kenya of (1963) and Newly Promulgated Constitution of the Republic Kenya of (2010) have further strengthened the Banks Act, thereby, empowering the bank to carry its main objective without political interferences and curbing time-inconsistency trap. The appointment and removal of the CEO of the Bank (governor) and his/her deputy rest with the president discretion for a period of four years term in office unless stated otherwise. In connection to the governor term of office termination, the president has a directive to appoint a tribunal comprised consisting of a chairperson and two members who hold offices in High Court or Court of Appeal. This tribunal enquires on matters related to termination of such appointments and make recommendation to the president. Nevertheless, these might undermine the Banks credibility in upholding autonomy in case the termination of the governor might be unlawfully since the appointing authority might compromise the tribunal to favor his/her decision. In conformity with the Act CAP (491), the MPC is hereby required to forward a report at least every six month to the Minister detailing all dealings the bank is undertaking hence the Minister shall table the MPC report before the Parliament for further amendment and deliberations. The Bank is exempted from any taxation whatsoever in respect to losses or profits. The Banks books of records and financial statements subjected for auditing by the Controller and Auditor General only if the Minister of Finance deems it appropriate for such auditing. Both Governor and Deputy Governor are indebted to adhere to the bank in totality and prohibited from engaging in any other paid businesses, professional activities or employment while still in office. These is in agreement with majority of literature such as (Klomp and Haan 2008) who based their idea on Cukierman Index which states the following inherent features for a central bank to be termed as more independent: (i) if the governor appointing authority rest with BOG rather than the president, is not prone to relieve of his/her duty, and has a longer tenure in office. (ii), if the government has no tendency to interfere with banks conduct of business, for example, in policy formulation and implementation; if there is a greater independence be it of legal instruments or goal instruments; and also if the government has no capacity to borrow from the bank. (iii) last but not least, if the bank main objective is price stability. 1.1.2c) Economic Independence of CBK Kenya has also experienced tremendous financial innovations intensifying greater implications to monetary policy transmission mechanism. The Bank is empowered to act as a fiscal agent of the government or any public entity. Similarly, the advance made by bank to the government is supposed to be secured with securities issued by government, of which are supposed to mature before twelve months, bears interest at market rate, and are advanced for a short-term period to the government. In compliance with the statute, the CBK has an authority to grant loans and advances not exceeding three years in fixed period to government as a Deposit Protection Fund Board (DPFB), while the bank has mandate to lend or give credit to public entity, although, it is limited in extending such credits. The main interest is built on the various chief features associated with the introduction of inflation targeting framework by most of the Central Banks of both developed economies and transitional economies around the world; borrowing heavily from various aspects of literature that have analyzed greatly the development of this framework in order to determine the viability of the framework in low income countries such as Kenya. indeed, little has been done in A model specific to the needs of Kenya will be developed while building a general structure within the framework of an ITF so as to distinguish between group characteristics of the inflation-targeting and non-targeting central banks since its inception, and the relationship between various variables mentioned in the hypothesis. In addition, the paper depicts lessons learned by countries that have already adopted the strict ITF since 1990s. What become apparent evident in process of this review, however, is that several contributory problems must first be solved before forming an informed judgment on the likelihood of low-income countries embracing the framework. The first of these problems is whether there are impetus and aspect linked with decisions to move from a specific monetary practice to another. Second problem revolves around the feasibility of other policy designs of monetary policy such as exchange rate regime and central bank independence Third problem will address chief pitfalls that could prevent low-income countries from embracing this policy design. The study hypotheses investigates the relationship between conditions that lead to adoption of inflation targeting framework in developed economies and examine if these pre conditions have a replicate effect in low income countries. The other parts of the paper shall be structured as follows: In section II, assess modification of monetary policy conduct under ITF by various developing countries central banks, the cons and pros of shifting to such strategy. In section III evaluate the exchange rate transition and its role to inflation targeting framework more specifically the following interrelated issues will be taken into considerations: the role of nominal exchange rate it plays as a nominal anchor, the costs associated with the real exchange rate overvaluation; and the approach for exiting the pegged exchange rate. Section IV reviews the role of the central bank independence since it forms the core tenet of conjecture that is built around the inflation targeting framework.Likewise, other contributory factors to embracing the framework will be captured in this Section. The paper concludes with the policy recommendation and the way forward. 1.3 General Salient features, Implementation and Experience A better strategy for monetary policy is built on the following inherent characteristics as summarized by Svensson Lars 1997; Friedman, 1990; McCallum, 1990 that is, it is supposedly to be highly correlated with the goal and has a tendency to be controlled by central bank with much ease than the goal itself. Similarly, the public and the central bank should be able to comply to it with much ease than the goal. In addition, transparency is of greater importance in terms of the efficiency and effectiveness of the bank communicating to the public its objective and procedure of conducting its monetary stance. Literature from (Bernanke and Mishkin 1997), Bernanke et al. (1999) and (Svensson Lars 1997) has vehemently mentioned various elements that form this framework which includes. First, price stability is formally chosen as the main intent of monetary policy, which indicates the monetary stance and the central banks principle of appraising its performance. Second, the central bank issues a declaration, which categorically states the numerical target for inflation within a specific, horizon-thus the bank has the latent to lessen the possibilities of falling into time inconsistency trap in carrying out its primary goal. Third, either the government can opt to choose the target, independently or collectively with the central bank, which is associated with appropriate changes in the central banks law thus enhancing instrument independence of the institution in achieving its target. Fourth, the ITF promotes high transparency in the conduct of monetary policy thus enabling flow of information from the central bank to the public and government. Svensson Lars (1997) stated that, when the authority anticipate the policy target deviation, the strategy should be attuned in such a way it is neither contractionary nor is it expansionary in accordance with keeping the policy on target. On this background, the IT-framework work best in forecasting future inflation, that is, the relevant information for forecasting monetary policy is of greater importance in predicting future inflation. Indeed, this transparency of inflation targeting forms a better juncture in terms of motivating and focusing the activities insi de the central bank. More so, there is high tendency of central bank accountability, which is often outlined in case of breach of inflation target, meaning it helps in clarifying what the central bank is capable and incapable for it to be accountable. Although, inflation targeting has proved to be the best modern strategy it does not lack some criticism or problems that characterizes it in terms of implementation and monitoring. For instance Svensson Lars (1997) has described some of the inherent problems that makes this strategy ineffective, which includes: central banks inability to restrain inflation due to the fact that, previous decisions and contracts play a vital role in determining current inflation. In other words, the authority can only have power over the future inflation. In addition, monitoring and evaluation of monetary policy by public faces a greater set back due to the inadequate control of inflation. CHARPTER TWO 32.0 Literature Review A large body of literature has been developed to analyze the effectiveness of an explicit numerical anchor since such framework was adopted in early 1990s. There exists a large number of literatures on major development of Inflation Targeting Framework since its inception in developed countries and emerging economies. However, there is little development in low-income countries in regards to adoption and implementation of this framework varies greatly in most of these countries because of lack of a well-developed financial market, inadequate fiscal position, political interferences and also lack of market integration in majority of them thus posing a bigger challenge to welcoming this framework as a way of monetary policy conduct. Therefore, the section borrows heavily from past studies that have since been done in order to demarcate the gaps that have made the framework ineffective. 3.1 Transition to Inflation Targeting Framework: Central Bank of Kenya In the past decades, the monetary policy encountered by most of the emerging markets economies has been depressing, these resulted to extreme periods of monetary instability, vacillating from high inflation, to colossal capital flight, and thereby led to downfall of many financial systems. However, the forecast for successful monetary policy in the majority of countries in transition have so far been augmented. This has been typified by considerable decline of inflation rate in Latin America region as an example of an emerging region, which dramatically fell from an average of above 400% in 1989 to less than 10% (Mishkin Savastano, 2001) According to Morande and Schmidt-Hebbel (997), this objective of inflation control has been interpreted by public as formal targets or hard targets. Thus enables the central bank to be more accountable by explicitly announcing a multi-year target for inflation. Downs and Vaez-Zadeh (1990) declared that during the transition it is not possible to forecast market behavior..[s]ince the old money-model is bound to be obsolete and perhaps of little use (318). Indeed, the old fashioned regime of money-growth targeting framework has proved inefficient in the recent past, although the Central Bank of Kenya has been able to maintain inflation rate as low as possible. Above all, the de-regulation of economic activities in the early 1990s marked a major landmark in the conduct of monetary policy in Kenya in terms of objectives, instruments and institutional framework. Mwega 1990(a) developed a model that sought to explain the changes in the CPI Growth e.g. real income (T) changes, changes in money supply (M2), changes in import prices and changes in previous years inflation rates (Pt-1) were the expansionary variables. In these results, he found money supply to be a significant determinant of inflation. Similar study was done by Ndungu (1993) where he did a comprehensive study on the dynamics of the inflationary process in Kenya for the period 1970-1991. He used a monetarist model, named the error correction form of model and empirically showed monetary growth, interest rates changes, real income growth and excess money printing which were significant determinants of inflation in Kenya assuming a closed economy. When he included the external economy, he found the exchange rate had a significant effect on the domestic price level. The results of his study indicated inappropriate government policies (monetary and fiscal) resulted lack of control of inflation especially in 1980-1990 where inflation level escalated. Mishkin and Schmidt-Hebbel (2007) in there panel data analysis comprising of both inflation-targeting industrial countries and non-inflation targeting industrial countries, argued that ITF has helped these countries in achieving stable inflation rate in the long-run where they are attributable in oil-prices and exchange rate shocks, and that are associated with strengthening of monetary policy independence and enhanced policy efficiency. Taguchi and Kato (2010) assessed the performance of the IT in East Asian economies where they adopted a co-integration approach between money and inflation. The estimation results were that, the ITF in the sample of few selected economies, except for Philippines, proved to work well as an anchor for controlling inflation through speeding up price adjustments (stabilizing inflationary expectations) against money supply in the context of floating exchange rate. Similarly, they argued that, well-functioning inflation targeting framework was consistent with enhanced monetary autonomy under the post-crisis floating exchange rate. Aizenman and Hutchison (2008) used a simple empirical model where they estimated panel data for 17 emerging markets for both inflation-targeters and non-inflation targeters and concluded that there was a stable inflation response running from inflation to policy interest rates for inflation-targeters in emerging markets who have anchored their inflation than in non-inflation targeters whose central banks respond less in such markets. Similarly, they argued that the response to real exchange rate was much stronger in non-IT countries, however, suggesting that policymakers are more constrained in the IT regime where they attempt to target both inflation and real exchange rate and these objectives are not always consistent. 2.2 An overview of the exchange rate transition and its role in ITF The Central Bank of Kenya policy objectives have been to protract an exchange rate that will ensure international competiveness while maintaining domestic rate of inflation at low levels through conduct of strict monetary stance. Calvo and Reinhard (2002) argued that Majority of emerging markets are facing problem in performing inflation targeting due to various issues of how to manage the exchange rate under the condition that their external debt is primarily denominated in U.S. dollars. Therefore, the idea of this framework is believed to work best under floating exchange rate regime.Hence, inflation targeting framework as a monetary policy strategy becomes unrealizable in majority of this countries due to too much concern towards exchange rate volatility. In recent times, countries with fixed exchange rate have a tendency to fix their domestic currency value to countries whose main objective is to anchor their inflation in readiness to keep inflation rate in check. Most of the countries that have adopted a crawling target or peg their currency tend to devalue at a firm rate in order to keep their inflation rate low vis a vis their counterpart anchoring countries. These periods marked a milestone that foresaw an accelerated money supply growth and high inflation, but at the same time there was a move to speed up economic reforms and accelerate the pace of liberalization. An exchange rate regime makes central bank quite accountable because it has clear-cut goals [b]ut can actually weaken accountability of the Central Banks in emerging- markets countries, by eliminating important signal that can help keep monetary policy from becoming too expansionary (Blejer, creb, 1999, p. 41).Also, for the same reasons described in (Mishkin, 1999a) exchange rate targeting can promote financial fragility and lead to foreign exchange crises that can also lead to full-fledged financial crises with disastrous consequences for the economy(Cited by Blejer creb, p.50) .Hence, a continuous adherence of exchange rate regime is probable to have far-reaching impact of economic sluggishness and exacerbate redundancy in the economy, which is exactly what Kenya has exper ienced in the past. Therefore, the Central Bank should move more assertively by provision of an extra credibility, where policy easing is desired to prevent output reductions, without igniting fears of renewed inflation. Mishkin Savastano ( 2001) acknowledged that [t]here are three broad monetary policy strategies that can produce an explicit nominor anchor that credibly constrains the discretion of the central bank over the medium : hard exchange-rate pegs, monetary targeting, and inflation targeting. In spite of this, majority of industiralized economies, notably the United States, have used a more or less the same strategy of anchoring inflation. However, it does not explicitly anchor inflation but it implicitly anchor its inflation. a monetary policy with an implicit but not an explicit nominal anchor sought of monetary policy strategy to achieve macro-economic goals. Whereas, the three monetary policy strategies have enabled emerging economies to set up institutions and mechanisms that have effectively and efficiently constrained the discretion of their monetary authorities; their suitability to conditions in different markets differs according to each strategy that is adopted by each country. Reinhart and Rogoff (2004) declared that, Developing countries central banks tend to pursue exchange rate targets that considerably are more deterministic than their official pronouncements.[while] a managed floater might be operating a fixed exchange rate or a crawling peg for extended periods. Likewise, Kenya has undergone myriad exchange rate regimes in the past mostly driven by various economic cycles, and chiefly the balance of payments deficit. For instance, up to 1974, the exchange rate was pegged to the dollar, but later the devaluation of the currency resulted to a change of the peg to the SDR.1 from 1974-1984 period. This regime lasted until 1990 when a dual exchange rate system was adopted that lasted till October 1993 when, after a series of devaluations, the official exchange rate was abolished. (Mwega and Ndungu, 2001) acknowledged that Kenya adopted a unified and flexible exchange rate in the early 1990s, as part of a market-based reform program designed to improve the investment environment and spur economic growth(Cited by Ndungu, 2008). In addition, the (Kenyan Economic Survey, 1995) revealed that the nominal exchange rate suddenly depreciated by about 32%, moving to Ksh38 to the U.S dollar from Ksh 44 to the dollar, and inflation declined from 46% in 1993 to 28.8% in 1994 (as cited in Ndungu, 2000) as a result of shilling appreciating against dollar in 1995. 2.3 Central Bank Independence The literature on ITF in emerging market economies suggests that this monetary policy strategy should be adopted only if some institutional preconditions are met. One of them is Central Bank Independence. Many scholars have given much attention to the central bank autonomy and the role it plays in adopting ITF. Indeed, where central bank is autonomous from government interference it is likely to insulate itself from political pressures to finance government fiscal deficits, which can result to over-expansionary monetary policies that would lead to inflation above target. Cukierman, Webb and Neyapti (1992) constructed Central Bank Index that was designed in two folds that is, legal independence and turnover rate of governors, where both revolved around central bank charters and legislation and the relationship it has over the overall performance of the economy. This paper provides an overview of the mushrooming literature on authority autonomy and precision relating it to the mechanis ms through which central banks have in the past adopted greater openness, thereby, focusing more on the role they play in adoption and effective implementation of inflation targeting framework. (Klomp and De Haan, 2010) used a random coefficient model and they estimated a sample of more than 100 countries to re-examine the relationship between CBI (measured by both governors TOR and central bank legal indicator) and inflation. They found Central Bank Index to be negatively insignificant with the level of inflation rate of country specific. Most literatures in developing countries have focused on de facto independence as a proxy of CBI that is governors turnover rate. Studies of Cukierman, Webb and Neyapti (1992) stated that the average and variance of inflation has a negative correlation to governors turnover rate in most of the developing. This is due to the fact that, majority of studies has expressed doubts over the reliability of most of indicators used to construct Central Bank Independence indices. Indeed, there exist a greater divergence when it comes to categorization of indicators used to measure CBI incase of high income countries, emerging countries and low income countries. Cukierman,1994 and Eijffinger and De Haan (1996) have categorically contended that, the CBI indices in majority of high income countries are arises from central banks laws interpretation and are of great concern to legal independence indicator, whereas, in developing countries de facto independence indicators form the main measure of central bank independence. Axel Dreher, Jan-Egbert Sturm, Jakob de Haan (2010) used a data set comprising of eighty-eight countries term of office of central banks governors since 1975-2005. They used logit model to test the likelihood central bank governor term of tenure geting terminated before their legal term in office expires. According to their results, the probability of a TOR as a measure of CBI tend to soar under certain condtions which includes: unstable political system, undue elapse of governor term of service in office and during elections period in self-governing countries. Accordingly, they indicated in their hypothesis that there was a higher chance of the governors getting replaced if there was huge drop out of veto players from the government. Alex, Webb and Bilin (1992)) developed legal independence where they mentioned some of the intrinsic features such as the degree of independence that the authority should bestow to the Bank, and lone dependence on legal component of independence. Beside s, the legal independence is significant in ascertaining inflation rate in developed economies. Whereas, turnover rate of governors forms a better turning point of inflation determination in developing countries. Likewise they argued that, in cases where governor legal term of office is shorter than that of government CBI is likely to be compromised by the government, thereby, resulting to increased TOR. More over, the governor is likely to be susceptible from government influence thereby derailing long-term objective of policy formation and implementation under the pretext of political pressure especially during election periods. (Kuttner Kenneth, Posen Adam 2010), took the same direction and indicated that undue appointment of governor in office result to construed information to the bank in terms of carrying out its primary objective of price stability. For instance, unjustifiable appointment of governor under low inflation periods may reinforce the exchange rate, while the opposite is always true. Since governors appointment seem to contain valuable information regarding the exchange rate and inflation rate. Gutierrez (2003) indicated that CBI has positieve impact in reducing the chances of governments incurring budget deficits through quasi-fiscal activities. Since such activities can be understood on their inflationary impacts. Posen and Kuttner (2010) estimated the effect of legal appointment of governor to office exchange rates and bond yield and argued that the main test was to verify the scope to which markets observe that the next governor will bring a swing in policy, whereby he/she is expected to determine the bearing of such swing. This is in conformity with the fact that, the news conveyed may favour either one side due to markets reaction after such appointment. 2.4 Financial Institutions Another important prerequisite for successful ITF stressed by the literature is a healthy financial and banking system. Several reasons can be advanced to explain the great importance of well-functioning financial system under inflation targeting framework. First, a sound financial system is essential to guarantee an efficient transmission of monetary policy through the interest rate channel which forms the major channel through which the CBK carries out its main objective of price stability, and more specifically forms an enabling environment of smooth exchange and provision of credit. Second, according to Mishkin (2004), a weak banking sector is potentially problematic to achieve inflation target, because the central bank would be hesitant to raise short-term interest rates for fear that this will impact the profitability of banks and lead to a collapse of the financial system. Third, countries characterized by weak financial institutions are more vulnerable to a sudden stop of cap ital outflows, causing a sharp depreciation of the exchange rate which leads to upward pressures on the inflation rate (Mishkin, 2004). Fourth, a consequence of lack of large domestic capital markets is an important accumulation of foreign currency external liabilities by firms, households and the government, while their assets are denominated in domestic currency. This liability dollarization makes the financial system more vulnerable to a depreciation of the domestic currency9 by reducing the net worth of borrowers through a balance sheets effect Finally, as outlined in (Woo 2003), a well-developed domestic capital market enables the public treasury to diversify its sources of funds (e.g. by issuing bonds), and then reduces incentive to finance public deficits through inflation. Moreover, (Cukierman 1992) argues that the degree of financial depth is positively correlated with the level of CBI, in the sense that broad financial markets are more likely to grant their central bank more independence in order to avoid potential disruptions in the process of financial intermediation. Lucotte, (2010 argues that for any monetary policy strategy, a sound financial system in essential to guarantee efficient transmission of monetary policy through interest rate channel, but also through credit channel. (Mishkin, 2004) declared that unhealthy financial system can result to problems in case of embracing the scheme since CB tend to raise interest in the short term for fear of collapse of financial systems. He also argues that exchange rate sharply depreciate due to huge capital outflow thus exacerbating upward pressure on the inflation rate. 2.5 Political institutions Eijffinger and De Haan, ((1996) noted that, a positive relationship between party political instability and CBI has been reinforced by current politicians in office who anticipate a greater downfall in terms of losing their position in an election, thus, they tend to delegate authority to central bank in order to constrain the future government, that is restrict the range of policy actions available. Similarly, according to findings of (Cukierman, 1992) Influence of Political Stability countries experiencing political stability leads to a more independent central bank. The results showed that political parties instabilities have a positive relation with CBI, whereas a high level political party instability has a negative relationship with CBI. The political arena is of greater importance in arriving to the conclusion as to why most countries experiencing high bout of inflation tend to be characterized by high level of political instability. The main contribution is to examine whether the political institutions have embarked on strengthening and supporting the democratic space in terms of political participation, democracy, accountability and openness in government. 2.6 Fiscal Positions CHARPTER THREE 3.0 Methodology This paper will focus more specifically on various institutional arrangements focusing primarily on the central bank autonomy, financial institutions, fiscal position, political institutions and also macro-economic variables. In order to underscore the effect of ITF, it is also important to note that, most of the emerging economies that have already anchored their monetary strategy using this framework have a very short experience with regard to its implementation; therefore, the analysis will focus on those countries with more than two years of operation by the end of 2009. Similarly, since the data used in these paper is largely secondary data it varies greatly due to various factors associated to country specific, for example, political upheavals that may have derailed data collection; re-organization of governments from former regimes these is mainly related to former soviet union countries which disintegrated in 1990s. 3.1 Data coverage and sources The Panel dataset covers thirty-nine developed economies, emerging markets and developing economies comprising of those markets that have targeted their monetary policy and those that are yet to target for the period ranging from 1980-2009. This is because it is easier to establish the effectiveness of the framework since the first country anchored its monetary policy in late 1980s. See appendix for further variable specific description 3.2 Variable Specification 3.2.1 Exogenous variable This paper is built on a half year rule in deciding the actual date that the inflation targeting countries adopted the framework. Therefore, the first six months of the year will be taken as the actual year of adoption and the second six months of the year will be captured in the year that follows and will be recognized as the year of inflation targeting adoption. 3.2.2 Endogenous Variables I. Institutional Indicators Institutional indicators have been highly used by various scholars and countries targeting inflation in determining the preference or probability of shifting their former monetary stance to inflation targeting framework. The variables of importance will be categorized into four broad indicators each proxied with variable of interest to be analyzed at a later stage. Central Bank Independence Index proxied by both legal independence index and governors turnover rate forms the first institutional indicator of interest. This paper is built on the indices of Cukierman et al (1992); Crowe, C. and Ellen E. Meade (2007); Kuttner and Posen (2001); Grilli, et al (GMT)(1992) it will take a diferent appraoch. I use their more or less methodology of arriving at the legal independence index by constructing a dummy variable of CBI guided by the following six broad questions: first, what is the authority primary objective of monetary policy conduct? Second, who is responsible in the appointment procedures of the chief executive of the authority? Third, The Turnover rate of the Governors forms an inverse relationship of central bank autonomy where it is assumed that a high turnover rate is good indicator of fragile central bank sovereignty. Therefore, Cukierman et al (1992) derivation of the TOR will form the focal point of this paper and the expected sign is negatively related to the likelihood of adopting ITF. Political stability variable forms a larger part in determining the probability of countries anchoring their inflation rate, in particular, the developing countries where democracy is highly undermined by few political elite. Beck et al (2001) constructed a dataset called Polity IV project to measure institutional political stability using databases of DPI. However, the Polity IV project is further reconstructed to Polity2 Index. Similarly, the focus is democratic score and autocratic score used to derive this index by deducting both score.Hence for the sake of this paper, a democratic score dummy will be indicated by 1 if a country is more democratic or zero otherwise. The same applies to autocratic score dummy where it will take a value of 1 if a country is very autocratic or zero otherwise. The exchange rate regime forms the third institutional indicator variable. Many proponent of international finance have classified exchange rate regime into both de jure exchange rate(according to law), which basically captures central banks official commitment to policy, however, it lack proper mechanism for actual policy control. The other classification of exchange rate regime is the de facto exchange rate (by existence) and it monitors the exchange rate movement, however, it lacks the intended compositional characteristics. The IMFs AnnualReport on Exchange Arrangement and Exchange Restrictions classified the exchange rate regime into nine categories and further re-classified the same into three folds namely: 1)floating exchange rate comprised of free floating, managed floating. 2) An intermediate floating comprising of basket pegging, crawling pegging and band arrangement 3) fixed exchange rate comprised of hard pegging and currency board. For the purpose of this paper, I will employ the de jure exchange rate classification where I will construct a dummy variable, which will take the value of 1 if a country is under floating exchange rate or zero otherwise. Since the interest is built on the impact of the exchange rate regime towards country specific shifting to another monetary policy strategy. The sign of coefficient is expected to be positive, that is, the more flexible exchange rates the higher the chances of a country to adopt the framework. II. Macro-economic Structure variables The Financial Development variable forms the first macro-economic structural indicator of in interest. Therefore, it is of great importance to countries forging the way forward in case of adopting this strategy since it gives authority credibility to meet their intended objectives. Although, there are many indicators that have been used to test financial depth of various countries private credit ratio to GDP will form my indicator. I expect a positive coefficient that categorically states that, strong financial depth provides high probability of countries adopting this framework. Second, trade openness which is the ratio of exports plus imports of goods and services to nominal GDP is used as an alternative to evaluate the extent of exposure to external shocks. This is because it has a direct relationship with the exchange rate regime hence a fixed exchange rate makes a country to be vulnerable to external shocks due to pressure of sustaining such regime. This variable has a positive relationship with the likelihood of adopting inflation targeting. Third, Financial openness proxied by the ratio of external government debt to nominal GDP measures the financial openness of a country. Countries characterized with greater financial openness compel authority responsible of conducting monetary policy to inauspicious environment in the conduct of their business. Therefore, financial openness has an inverse relationship with the discretion of adopting inflation targeting framework. The fourth measure of macroeconomic structure is fiscal balancewhich is typified by two aspects, that is,government balance to GDP ratio and current account to nominal GDP ratios. The presumption is that, those countries that are highly characterized by government fiscal imbalances are conceived to command low levels of reliability. The variables in consideration are supposed to be positively related with ITF. III. Control variables: Third macroeconomic variable to be included in the model will be the log of GDP per capita (ln_GDP), which measures the variation in the level of economic development involving countries. Has a positive sign of coefficient to inflation targeting. Fourth Variable is the nominalized inflation rate (INF_N) hence the sign is expected to be negative. A normalized inflation is important in case of controlling weight of hyperinflation and it should be lagged two periods to avoid a potential simultaneity between inflation targeting and inflation level. Empirical methodology This paper aim at protracting logit model estimation in order to arrive at the choices facing various countries in particular developing countries in adopting inflation targeting. Moreover, the will 3.1.1 Panel data logit regression model Due to the nature of the exogenous variable (I.e. binary exogenous variable) given as ITit where it takes a value of 1 if a country specific is inflation targeting and 0 otherwise. Subscripts i=1N is the cross section dimension; t=1T both representing country specific and years respectively. it is the constant term. The white noise term is specified as it=it+it where it designate unnoticed country-specific effects, whereas it is the random error. it ~ IN(0, 2) is an assumption of random effects logit model specification. IT it-2= it + INSTit + INF (-2)it+ Xit + it it ~ IN(0, 2) The independent variables include institutional framework denoted as (INSTit) and comprises of various institutional variables comprised of: first, Central Bank Independence indices measured in this analysis by the turnover rate of central bank governors and legal independence of central banks. 3.1.2 The Inflation approach These section is built on both panel and cross-sectional approach, where the exogenous variable is nominal inflation rate variable. The independent variables arises from control variables comprised of trade openness, Log of GDP per Capita, dummy Exchange rate regime, proxy of current account to GDP ratio, and Polity2 index as a proxy of political instability. Under this section the variables under consideration will be grouped in three periods 1980-89, 1990-99 and 2000-2009, each is made up of at least ten years. I also include a dummy Inflation Targeting Framework (ITFt-2) in lag of two years in order to capture the marginal effect of the framework towards inflation rate for inflation targeting countries or zero otherwise. See Appendix VI, Table6 for further variable specific explanations 3.3 Data The sample of IT countries is composed of Australia, Brazil, Colombia, Canada, Czech Republic, Chile, Guatemala, Ghana, Hungary, Israel, Mexico, Peru, Philippines, Poland, S. Africa, S. Korea, Thailand, Finland, Norway, Spain, Sweden, New Zealand, Iceland, and United Kingdom. Whereas, Non-IT countries includes: Bulgaria, Belgium, Egypt, Nigeria, Kenya, Dominic Republic, Ireland, Argentina, Morocco, Cape Verde, Equatorial Guinea, Honduras, Luxembourg, Netherlands ,and Greece. Difference in majority of literature on the actual dates and number of countries that have so far adopted ITF (eg Kuttner and Posen 2001) Peru IT regime to January 1993 vis a vis (Mish kin and Schmidt-Hebbel 2001) and Bank of Peru date it to January 1994 and January 2002). This paper will stress the (Levya 2008) countries IT classification by the end of 2005 exclusive of Ghana which adopted ITF in 2007 and Turkey (2006). 3.4 Estimating Results 4.0 Conclusion The main analysis of this study will exhaust major avenues that have led many countries shifting their former monetary strategy to inflation targeting framework paying attention to emerging markets and developing countries. Factors such as institutional arrangement and macroeconomic variables that have been considered in this paper have a high likelihood of countrys decision to embrace the ITF. The findings of my analysis using probit regression model have indicated that CBI has a positive relationship of a country specific adopting the framework this clearly states the need of major central bank to be fully independent before they embrace the framework. Similarly, market capitalization is one of the indicators of financial development of a country hence it is clear that, countries need to have strong financial institutions before switching to this framework. The Log of Real GDP per capita is significantly associated with the choice of inflation targeting hence a good precedent of im proving overall economic performance; it is also consistent with the fact that the rationale behind adopting ITF is to improve economic performance. The regressions results also indicate that majority of countries with floating exchange rate stand a high probability of embracing ITF. (Hu, 2003), found the negative effect of inflation over the chances of adopting the ITF be unforeseen, which is consistent with this analysis. In fear of losing public credibility, the central bank is more likely to adopt inflation targeting when inflation rates are low, which makes the targeted inflation rate easier to achieve. This is because most central banks are unwillingly to adopt inflation targeting during high bout of inflation that might undermine their credibility. Strong financial development variables are found to play a key role in determining the likelihood of developing countries adopting ITF under various regression specifications. 4.1 Policy Recommendation Inflation targeting offers a coherent framework for the conduct of monetary policy, not only for industrialized and established emerging market economies but also, with some modification, for pre-emerging market economies such as Kenya with the dominant view that the basic architecture of the formal inflation-target framework is sound and is likely to remain in place in the future. The instruments independence, in which the central bank controls monetary policy instruments, should be insulated from short-run political pressures that may lead it to time-inconsistency trap thus producing bad long-run outcomes. In addition, the central banks long-run preferences should coincide with societys preferences that suggest a goal dependent central bank, and a transparency of policy associated with inflation-targeting that is intended to central bank highly accountable to the public.

Nathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown - 1083 Words

The Puritan religion played a big role in the formation of early America, therefore significantly changing a lot of the authors who wrote throughout this time period, including Nathaniel Hawthorne. One of Hawthorne’s most known stories is â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† – a story wherein Hawthorne mixes faith and history to demonstrate humanity’s struggle with sin. â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† could possibly be regarded as a Spiritual story of symbols and inevitably as a disapproval of Puritan Calvinism. This is apparent once someone considers the tale through a mixture of symbolism and an intellect of the Puritan beliefs. Hawthorne incorporates symbols and allegories all through the story â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† to exemplify the Puritan Calvinistic outlook throughout the span of the 17th century, in which sin and wickedness is all around. He portrays faithfulness as a belief and as an a individual, the forests are represented as spirited evil collapsing inward all around, with branches turning to snakes, clouds of despair, torched branches, and also a satanic spiritual union mocking biblical matters. Understanding these symbols is incredibly vital since Hawthorne hopes the reader will ponder on the various notions in holy principles which are explained as complete fact, when in all actuality the principles are the analysis of the person teaching about the religion. â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† is set in 17th century New England, and focuses on the Calvinist idea that everyone lives within a world ofShow MoreRelatedNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown1543 Words   |  7 PagesIn Nathaniel Hawthorne s short story of Young Goodman Brown, the author uses symbolism and allegories in order to showcase the Puritan faith as well as man s conflict between good and evil. This analysis will break down the techniques that the author uses to critique the puritan society and to show the difference between how people appear to be in society and the true colors that they are hidden inside of them. There has been a lot of great authors in our time, but none more interesting thanRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown1065 Words   |  5 PagesWhen it comes to the topic of Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Young Goodman Brown, most of us will readily agree that duplicity is a major theme in the piece, or the idea of different versions of reality. Where this agreement usually ends, however, is on the question of whether Hawthorne is implying that man is inherently evil. Whereas some are convinced that Young Goodman Brown was good until tainted by the Devil, others maintain that he was evil from the beginning and was completely aware of the evil heRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown905 Words   |  4 PagesThough Nathaniel Hawthorne is an author of many great works, his short story â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† still stays relevant because it has themes and subjects that are relatable in today s world. In the story â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† Good man Brown leaves his wife Faith, to go into the woods near Salem to have a meeting with the devil. Appearance vs. reality is shown in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† through the plot, the character of Goody Cloyse, and the symbol of the maple staff. The characterRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown1312 Words   |  6 PagesWithin Nathaniel Hawthorne s short story Young Goodman Brown (p.317), Young Goodman Brown travels through a dark and mysterious forest late at night. Ignoring the pleas of his pure wife Faith, he ventures deep into the woods with many dangers around him, only to emerge in the morning a changed man with bewildered views on his own Puritan life and the Puritan community around him. At the cause for this change in mindset, the dream of an old man symbolizing the devil appears, showing him the communityRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown Essay1274 Words   |  6 PagesIn Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† the devil says, â€Å"Evil is the nature of mankind† (â€Å"Young† 627). Since Adam and Eve ate the forbidden fruit and attempted to hide conceal their sin from God, humans have tried to hide their sin from others. Although ever yone sin is human nature, everyone has a different reaction to sin. While some acknowledge sin, others ignore it. In Hawthorne’s other short story, â€Å"The Minister’s Black Veil,† Father Hooper wears a black veil to represent the sin heRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown Essay1449 Words   |  6 Pages â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† is a short story that is filled with symbols and mystery. Nathaniel Hawthorne provides plenty forms of symbolism for readers to digest. Hawthorne displays strong faith as the greatest virtue for a man or woman, and when the faith is compromised, one can be filled with skepticism and uncertainty towards the rest of the world. The story begins as a conventional allegory, creating the expectation that the characters will be able to consistently display the abstractions they symbolizeRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown1695 Words   |  7 Pagesstory, Young Goodman Brown, by Nathaniel Hawthorne is set in Puritan New England. Hawthorne uses symbolism, description, scenery, and Goodman’s journey to illustrate and symbolize the battle of good versus evil. In the first scene, we see how Young Goodman Brown leaves his wife, Faith, to start on his â€Å"evil† journey through the woods. Though Faith asks him to stay with her, he chooses to continue on even though he knows the evilness lies ahead. As the story continues, we see how Hawthorne uses FaithRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown1492 Words   |  6 PagesIn Nathaniel Hawthorne’s short story of Young Goodman Brown, the author uses symbolism and allegories in order to showcase the Puritan faith as well as man’s conflict between good and evil. This analysis will breakdown the techniques that the author uses to critique the puritan society, and to show the difference between how people appear to be in society and the true colors that they are hidden inside of them. There has been a lot of great authors in our time, but none more interesting than NathanielRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown2532 Words   |  11 PagesNathaniel Hawthorne’s short story, â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† demonstrates how Goodman Brown leaves his wife, Faith, to do an errand within the woods with a man that is believed to be the devil. During the time period in which this took place, the 1620’s, many of the people from the village were practicing Puritanism. Puritanism is an intense practice of religion retrieved from Protestants, only removing its Catholic influence. When Goodman Brown entered the woods to meet the devil, he soon turned intoRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s Young Goodman Brown894 Words   |  4 Pagesread. In â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†, I found several romanticism characteristics to be in this story. One being, the emphasis on feelings and emotions. Nathaniel Hawthorne writes, â€Å"The cry of grief, rage, and terror was yet piercing through the night, when the unhappy husband held his breath for a response.† The cry of anguish and pain are very applicable to the protagonist idea in this story. Brown also expresses feeling when he doesn t want to leave his wife Faith, but he feels that it s his role to

William Shakespeares Presentation of Hamlet Through...

William Shakespeares Presentation of Hamlet Through Soliloquies Shakespeare presents Hamlet in the first Act as distraught and angry in a state of utter depression caused by his father’s death and as we learn during the first soliloquy, by his mother’s ‘frailty’ in remarrying so soon after the King’s death. Shakespeare reveals Hamlet’s torment and the origins and causes of a lot of his feelings that contribute to his behaviour throughout the play, in the first of Hamlet’s soliloquies in Act One, Scene Two. It is in this soliloquy that we learn of the hatred Hamlet feels for his mothers ‘incestuous’ marriage to his uncle Claudius, and ultimately the hatred he feels for himself. Not only do†¦show more content†¦Hamlet cannot see any solution to end his ‘too solid flesh’ other than suicide; it is the only way in which he feels he will be free. However, ‘the Everlasting’ does not allow anyone to act in this way. It is God who rules the universe and Hamlet feels he has no decision but to obey. To commit suicide would be the greatest sin Hamlet could commit which will not provide Hamlet with the purity and the state of mind he struggles for. The overwhelming disgust that Hamlet feels for the sin he believes his mother has committed is further enforced by Shakespeare’s use of form and language. The dramatic pauses throughout the soliloquy, such as ‘But tow months dead: nay, not so much, not two:’ reveal Hamlet’s distressed mood in which he thinks aloud through a stream of consciousness, almost as if he were in a dream. The poetry Shakespeare uses portrays the torture of Hamlets thoughts; the heavy syllables all the way through the soliloquy convey Hamlet’s utter state of depression. ‘O God; God, / How weary, stale, flat and unprofitable / Seem to me all the uses of the world!’ This dreamlike state Hamlet seems to be in is yet hardly a dream at all –Show MoreRelatedEssay about Greek Tragedy Exemplified in Shakespeares Hamlet1191 Words   |  5 PagesGreek Tragedy Exemplified in Shakespeares Hamlet For several thousands of years, drama has existed among mankind. The ancient Greeks are accredited with the creation of drama, which began as simple religious rituals and eventually evolved into the more complex forms of tragedies and comedies. The first rules of drama, not surprisingly, were also written by a Greek--the famous philosopher and intellectual, Aristotle. Aristotle took note of the what qualities created a successful dramatic pieceRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Hamlet - The Contemplation Of Suicide And Murder1941 Words   |  8 Pagesdeath. In William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the protagonist: Hamlet, contrasts the ideas of life and death to understand whether life is worth living with all the pain one must endure. Hamlet battles an internal struggle throughout the play to decide if suicide is the correct method to alleviate his hardship and dismay, or if he should face the daunting task of avenging his father’s death. The struggle Hamlet is faced with leads h im to debate suicide in his â€Å"To be, or not to be† soliloquy. The contemplationRead More Shakespeares Hamlet - Gertrude Essay examples2462 Words   |  10 PagesRegarding Hamlet’s Gertrude  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Angela Pitt in â€Å"Women in Shakespeare’s Tragedies† comments that Shakespeare’s Gertrude in Hamlet is, first and foremost, a mother:    Gertrude evinces no such need to justify her actions and thereby does not betray any sense of guilt. She is concerned with her present good fortune, and neither lingers over the death of her first husband nor analyses her motives in taking another. . . .She seems a kindly, slow-witted, rather self-indulgentRead More Shakespeares Hamlet Essay: Observations on Gertrude2572 Words   |  11 PagesAnd What of Gertrude in Hamlet?      Ã‚  Ã‚   To what extent does evil reign in the heart of Queen Gertrude in Shakespeare’s Hamlet? This essay will delve into her character, and into the deposit of literary criticism regarding her, in order to analyze her character in depth.    Philip Edwards’ â€Å"The Ghost: Messenger from a Higher Court of Values?† expresses the necessity of the Ghost leaving the guilt of Gertrude to the afterlife:    The final injunction, ‘Leave her to heaven’, mustRead More Custom Essays: Imagination versus Realism in Hamlet2213 Words   |  9 PagesImagination versus Realism in Hamlet      Ã‚  Ã‚   Is the Shakespearean tragic drama Hamlet basically an imaginative work or basically a realistic work? This essay seeks to answer this question and related questions, with the help of literary critics.    Harold Goddard’s essay, â€Å"Hamlet: His Own Falstaff,† highlights the battle between poetry and realism (history) in the play:    Hamlet, the conclusion is, is a failure because the materials Shakespeare inherited were too tough and intractableRead MoreEssay on Passionate Gertrude in Shakespeares Hamlet2793 Words   |  12 PagesPassionate Gertrude in Hamlet  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   Like so many of the characters in Shakespeare’s tragedy Hamlet, Gertrude appears to be dominated by passion. This essay will explore this and other aspects of her interesting character.    Lilly B. Campbell comments in â€Å"Grief That Leads to Tragedy† on Queen Gertrude’s sinful state:    Shakespeare’s picture of the Queen is explained to us by Hamlet’s speech to her in her closet. There we see again the picture of sin as evil willed by aRead More Gertrude of Shakespeare’s Hamlet Essay3047 Words   |  13 PagesThe Gertrude of Shakespeare’s Hamlet      Ã‚  Ã‚   Is Gertrude, in the Shakespearean drama Hamlet, a bore? A killer’s accomplice? The perfect queen? A dummy? This paper will answer many questions concerning Claudius’ partner on the Danish throne.    In her essay, â€Å"Acts III and IV: Problems of Text and Staging,† Ruth Nevo explains how the hero’s negative outlook toward Gertrude influences his attitude toward Ophelia:    Whereas it is precisely his total inability to know her [Ophelia]Read MoreImpossibility of Certainty in Hamlet1296 Words   |  6 PagesThe Impossibility of Certainty in Hamlet â€Å"Doubt is that state of mind where the questioner faces no single answer nor the lack of one, but rather a choice between a pair of alternatives.† – Harry Levin in The Question of Hamlet It is appropriate that William Shakespeare’s Hamlet is regarded as the Bard’s greatest dramatic enigma, for misunderstanding is the unavoidable condition of Hamlet’s quest for certainties. Not only is Hamlet bewildered by puzzling visions and by commands seeminglyRead MoreResponse to Shakespeares Presentation of the Responsibilities and Obligations Placed on Sons by Fathers in Hamlet1394 Words   |  6 PagesResponse to Shakespeares Presentation of the Responsibilities and Obligations Placed on Sons by Fathers in Hamlet Hamlet, by William Shakespeare, is a play based on the theme of revenge (otherwise known as a revenge tragedy). However there are other themes to this play that may not be as obvious as the main. Love, hate, madness are all other themes to this play, along with the theme of responsibility to sons and fathers. This theme is sustained throughout the whole playRead More Shakespeares Hamlet - Regarding Gertrude Essay1965 Words   |  8 PagesRegarding Hamlet’s Gertrude  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   In William Shakespeare’s most famous tragedy Hamlet, the audience meets a queen who is a former and present queen. She was unhappy before – how does she feel now? Is she evil, guilty, motherly, lascivious? The multiple aspects of her personality deserve our attention.    Angela Pitt in â€Å"Women in Shakespeare’s Tragedies† comments that Shakespeare’s Gertrude in Hamlet is, first and foremost, a mother:    Gertrude evinces no such need to justify

Rugby Football Union Free Essays

Rugby What is it all About? â€Å"In 1823, William Webb Ellis first picked up the ball in his arms and ran with it. And for the next 156 years forwards have been trying to work out why. † – Sir Tasker Watkins (1979) The History of Rugby, many believe that Rugby was born in 1823 when William Webb Ellis whilst spending his time at Rugby school, took the ball in his arms during a game of football and ran with it. We will write a custom essay sample on Rugby Football Union or any similar topic only for you Order Now This then became the distinctive future of the Rugby game. Although this is not fact as there is little in the way of evidence to substantiate this view, it is more by popular belief. The true year Rugby Football Union was founded was in the year 1871, in the month of December 1870 two men published a letter in The Times suggesting that anyone who plays the Rugby Game should meet and form a code of practice. On 26 January 1871 a meeting was held in Pall Mall, London with representatives from 21 clubs of the game. As a result of this meeting the Rugby Football Union was officially founded. Three lawyers who were former students of Rugby school drew up the first laws of the game which were approved in June 1871. The first ever International game was when England faced Scotland in Edinburgh on March 1871, the England team wore white with a red rose and Scotland wearing brown with a thistle. The game was played over two halves, 50 minutes each way. Scotland won by scoring a goal, a goal then was a try followed by a successful conversion kick. The name and game of rugby has evolved dramatically over the years. In 1886 found the formation of the International Rugby Football Board, this was formed by Scotland, Ireland and Wales as England refused to join after a try against Scotland was disallowed by the Referee. England finally agreed to join in 1890, since then the International Rugby Football Board changed its name in 1997 are now known as the International Rugby Board. The game is always started with the toss of a coin to deicide what team will kick off first. Play then starts with a drop kick, with the players chasing the ball into the opposition’s territory, and the other side trying to retrieve the ball and then taking the ball forward. If the player with the ball is tackled to the ground the team will then form a ruck to protect the ball and organize to set up play, throwing or passing the ball is always made to the player behind the ball, forward passing is not allowed. The ball can only move forward in three ways, by kicking, a player running with it and the ball moving within a scrum or ruck. Blocking is not allowed and only the player with the ball may be tackled if the ball is knocked forward by a player with his arms a knock on is committed and play is restarted with a scrum. Protective equipment is optional and strictly regulated. The most common items are mouth guards, which are worn by most players. Other protective items permitted include thin head gear no thicker than 10mm, non-rigid shoulder pads and also shin pads. Some players will wear bandage or tape to protect injuries. Over the years more and more countries have got involved in the game of rugby. 1910 was the start of the Five Nations Championship between England, France Ireland, Scotland and Wales. 1987 saw the start of the Rugby World Cup this championship was won by New Zealand who defeated France 29-9 at Eden Park, Auckland. 1996 the Tri Nations Series began between Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. 2000 the Five Nations became the Six Nations Championships with Italy joining in the competition. Even the points system has dramatically changed in 1890 a try was 1 point and a conversion 2 points now its 5 points for a try and 2 points for a conversion. My conclusion to rugby is that the history and tradition will grow stronger and stronger over the years, from famous victories to famous trophies for instance the Six Nations Championship Trophy as plenty of tradition and history, the current trophy was presented to the championship winners France in 1993, the sterling silver trophy, designed by James Brent-Ward and made by a team of eight silversmiths is valued at ? 5,000, although this trophy was originally silver inside over the years of celebratory champagne fillings the trophy became corroded and is now plated with 22 carat gold for protection. The trophy has 15 side panels representing the 15 members of the team and three handles to represent the three officials, this tradition will never die. â€Å"In our country, true teams rarely exist . . . social barriers and persona l ambitions have reduced athletes to dissolute cliques or individuals thrown together for mutual profit . . . Yet these rugby players. ith their muddied, cracked bodies, are struggling to hold onto a sense of humanity that we in America have lost and are unlikely to regain. The game may only be to move a ball forward on a dirt field, but the task can be accomplished with an unshackled joy and its memories will be a permanent delight. The women and men who play on that rugby field are more alive than too many of us will ever be. The foolish emptiness we think we perceive in their existence is only our own. † – Victor Cahn (The New York Times in June 1973) How to cite Rugby Football Union, Papers